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&>&&>&计算机专业毕业设计论文外文文献中英文翻译——java对象
计算机专业毕业设计论文外文文献中英文翻译——java对象_17600字
1 . Introduction To Objects
1.1 The progress of abstraction
All programming languages provide abstractions. It can be argued that the complexity of the problems you’re able to solve is directly related to the kind and quality of abstraction. By “kind” I mean, “What is it that you are abstracting?” Assembly language is a small abstraction of the underlying machine. Many so-called “imperative” languages that followed (such as FORTRAN, BASIC, and C) were abstractions of assembly language. These languages are big improvements over assembly language, but their primary abstraction still requires you to think in terms of the structure of the computer rather than the structure of the problem you are trying to solve. The programmer must establish the association between the machine model (in the “solution space,” which is the place where you’re modeling that problem, such as a computer) and the model of the problem that is actually being solved (in the “problem space,” which is the place where the problem exists). The effort required to perform this mapping, and the fact that it is extrinsic to the programming language, produces programs that are difficult to write and expensive to maintain, and as a side effect created the entire “programming methods” industry.
The alternative to modeling the machine is to model the problem you’re trying to solve. Early languages such as LISP and APL chose particular views of the world (“All problems are ultimately lists” or “All problems are algorithmic,” respectively). PROLOG casts all problems into chains of decisions. Languages have been created for constraint-based programming and for programming exclusively by manipulating graphical symbols. (The latter proved to be too restrictive.) Each of these approaches is a good solution to the particular class of problem they’re designed to solve, but when you step outside of that domain they become awkward.
The object-oriented approach goes a step further by providing tools for the programmer to represent elements in the problem space. This representation is general enough that the programmer is not constrained to any particular type of problem. We refer to the elements in the problem space and their representations in the solution space as “objects.” (You will also need other objects that don’t have problem-space analogs.) The idea is that the program is allowed to adapt itself to the lingo of the problem by adding new types of objects, so
when you read the code describing the solution, you’re reading words that also express the problem. This is a more flexible and powerful language abstraction than what we’ve had before. Thus, OOP allows you to describe the problem in terms of the problem, rather than in terms of the computer where the solution will run. There’s still a connection back to the computer: each object looks quite a bit like a little computer—it has a state, and it has operations that you can ask it to perform. However, this doesn’t seem like such a bad analogy to objects in the real world—they all have characteristics and behaviors.
Alan Kay summarized five basic characteristics of Smalltalk, the first successful object-oriented language and one of the languages upon which Java is based. These characteristics represent a pure approach to object-oriented programming:
1. Everything is an object. Think of an object it stores data, but you can “make
requests” to that object, asking it to perform operations on itself. In theory, you can take any conceptual component in the problem you’re trying to solve (dogs, buildings, services, etc.) and represent it as an object in your program.
2. A program is a bunch of objects telling each other what to do by sending messages. To make a
request of an object, you “send a message” to that object. More concretely, you can think of a message as a request to call a method that belongs to a particular object.
3. Each object has its own memory made up of other objects. Put another way, you create a new kind
of object by making a package containing existing objects. Thus, you can build complexity into a program while hiding it behind the simplicity of objects.
4. Every object has a type. Using the parlance, each object is an instance of a class, in which “class” is
synonymous with “type.” The most important distinguishing characteristic of a class is “What messages can you send to it?”
5. All objects of a particular type can receive the same messages. This is actually a loaded statement,
as you will see later. Because an object of type “circle” is also an object of type “shape,” a circle is guaranteed to accept shape messages. This means you can write code that talks to shapes and automatically handle anything that fits the description of a shape. This substitutability is one of the powerful concepts in OOP.
Booch offers an even more succinct description of an object:
An object has state, behavior and identity.
This means that an object can have internal data (which gives it state), methods (to produce behavior), and each object can be uniquely distinguished from every other object—to put this in a concrete sense, each object has a unique address in memory.
1.2 An object has an interface
Aristotle was probably the first to begin a careful study of he spoke of “the class of fishes and the class of birds.” The idea that all objects, while being unique, are also part of a class of objects that have characteristics and behaviors in common was used directly in the first object-oriented language, Simula-67, with its fundamental keyword class that introduces a new type into a program.
Simula, as its name implies, was created for developing simulations such as the classic “bank teller problem.” In this, you have a bunch of tellers, customers, accounts, transactions, and units of money—a lot of “objects.” Objects that are identical except for their state during a program’s execution are grouped together into “classes of objects” and that’s where the keyword class came from. Creating abstract data types (classes) is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming. Abstract data types work almost exactly like built-in types: You can create variables of a type (called objects or instances in object-oriented parlance) and manipulate those variables (called sending
you send a message and the object figures out what to do with it). The members (elements) of each class share some commonality: every account has a balance, every teller can accept a deposit, etc. At the same time, each member has its own state: each account has a different balance, each teller has a name. Thus, the tellers, customers, accounts, transactions, etc., can each be represented with a unique entity in the computer program. This entity is the object, and each object belongs to a particular class that defines its characteristics and behaviors.
So, although what we really do in object-oriented programming is create new data types, virtually all object-oriented programming languages use the “class” keyword. When you see the word “type” think “class” and vice versa.
Since a class describes a set of objects that have identical characteristics (data elements) and behaviors (functionality), a class is really a data type because a floating point number, for example, also has a set of characteristics and behaviors. The difference is that a programmer defines a class to fit a problem rather than
being forced to use an existing data type that was designed to represent a unit of storage in a machine. You extend the programming language by adding new data types specific to your needs. The programming system welcomes the new classes and gives them all the care and type-checking that it gives to built-in types.
The object-oriented approach is not limited to building simulations. Whether or not you agree that any program is a simulation of the system you’re designing, the use of OOP techniques can easily reduce a large set of problems to a simple solution.
Once a class is established, you can make as many objects of that class as you like, and then manipulate those objects as if they are the elements that exist in the problem you are trying to solve. Indeed, one of the challenges of object-oriented programming is to create a one-to-one mapping between the elements in the problem space and objects in the solution space.
But how do you get an object to do useful work for you? There must be a way to make a request of the object so that it will do something, such as complete a transaction, draw something on the screen, or turn on a switch. And each object can satisfy only certain requests. The requests you can make of an object are defined by its interface, and the type is what determines the interface. A simple example might be a representation of a light bulb:
Light lt = new Light();
The interface establishes what requests you can make for a particular object. However, there must be code somewhere to satisfy that request. This, along with the hidden data, comprises the implementation. From a procedural programming standpoint, it’s not that complicated. A type has a method associated with each possible request, and when you make a particular request to an object, that method is called. This process is usually summarized by saying that you “send a message” (make a request) to an object, and the object figures out what to do with that message (it executes code).
Here, the name of the type/class is Light, the name of this particular Light object is lt, and the requests that you can make of a Light object are to turn it on, turn it off, make it brighter, or make it dimmer. You create a Light object by defining a “reference” (lt) for that object and calling new to request a new object of that type. To send a message to the object, you state the name of the object and connect it to the message request with a period (dot). From the standpoint of the user of a predefined class, that’s pretty much all there is to programming with objects.
The preceding diagram follows the format of the Unified Modeling Language (UML). Each class is represented by a box, with the type name in the top portion of the box, any data members that you care to describe in the middle portion of the box, and the methods (the functions that belong to this object, which receive any messages you send to that object) in the bottom portion of the box. Often, only the name of the class and the public methods are shown in UML design diagrams, so the middle portion is not shown. If you’re interested only in the class name, then the bottom portion doesn’t need to be shown, either
1.3 An object provides services.
While you’re trying to develop or understand a program design, one of the best ways to think about objects is as “service providers.” Your program itself will provide services to the user, and it will accomplish this by using the services offered by other objects. Your goal is to produce (or even better, locate in existing code libraries) a set of objects that provide the ideal services to solve your problem.
A way to start doing this is to ask “if I could magically pull them out of a hat, what objects would solve my problem right away?” For example, suppose you are creating a bookkeeping program. You might imagine some objects that contain pre-defined bookkeeping input screens, another set of objects that perform bookkeeping calculations, and an object that handles printing of checks and invoices on all different kinds of printers. Maybe some of these objects already exist, and for the ones that don’t, what would they look like? What services would those objects provide, and what objects would they need to fulfill their obligations? If you keep doing this, you will eventually reach a point where you can say either “that object seems simple enough to sit down and write” or “I’m sure that object must exist already.” This is a reasonable way to decompose a problem into a set of objects.
Thinking of an object as a service provider has an additional benefit: it helps to improve the cohesiveness of the object. High cohesion is a fundamental quality of software design: It means that the various aspects of a software component (such as an object, although this could also apply to a method or a library of objects) “fit together” well. One problem people have when designing objects is cramming too much functionality into one object. For example, in your check printing module, you may decide you need an object that knows all about formatting and printing. You’ll probably discover that this is too much for one object, and that what you need is three or more objects. One object might be a catalog of all the possible check layouts, which can be queried for information about how to print a check. One object or set of objects could be a generic printing interface that knows all about different kinds of printers (but nothing about bookkeeping—this one is a candidate for buying rather than writing yourself). And a third object could use the services of the other two to accomplish the task. Thus, each object has a cohesive set of services it offers. In a good object-oriented design, each object does one thing well, but doesn’t try to do too much. As seen here, this not only allows the discovery of objects that might be purchased (the printer interface object), but it also produces the possibility of an object that might be reused somewhere else (the catalog of check layouts).
Treating objects as service providers is a great simplifying tool, and it’s very useful not only during the design process, but also when someone else is trying to understand your code or reuse an object—if they can see the value of the object based on what service it provides, it makes it much easier to fit it into the design.
1. 对象入门
1.1 抽象的进步
所有编程语言的最终目的都是提供一种“抽象”方法。一种较有争议的说法是：解决问题的复杂程度直接取决于抽象的种类及质量。这儿的“种类”是指准备对什么进行“抽象”？汇编语言是对基础机器的少量抽象。后来的许多“命令式”语言（如FORTRAN，BASIC和C）是对汇编语言的一种抽象。与汇编语言相比，这些语言已有了长足的进步，但它们的抽象原理依然要求我们着重考虑计算机的结构，而非考虑问题本身的结构。在机器模型（位于“方案空间”）与实际解决的问题模型（位于“问题空间”）之间，程序员必须建立起一种联系。这个过程要求人们付出较大的精力，而且由于它脱离了编程语言本身的范围，造成程序代码很难编写，而且要花较大的代价进行维护。由此造成的副作用便是一门完善的“编程方法”学科。
为机器建模的另一个方法是为要解决的问题制作模型。对一些早期语言来说，如LISP和APL，它们的做法是“从不同的角度观察世界”——“所有问题都归纳为列表”或“所有问题都归纳为算法”。PROLOG则将所有问题都归纳为决策链。对于这些语言，我们认为它们一部分是面向基于“强制”的编程，另一部分则是专为处理图形符号设计的。每种方法都有自己特殊的用途，适合解决某一类的问题。但只要超出了它们力所能及的范围，就会显得非常笨拙。
面向对象的程序设计在此基础上则跨出了一大步，程序员可利用一些工具表达问题空间内的元素。由于这种表达非常普遍，所以不必受限于特定类型的问题。我们将问题空间中的元素以及它们在方案空间的表示物称作“对象”（Object）。当然，还有一些在问题空间没有对应体的其他对象。通过添加新的对象类型，程序可进行灵活的调整，以便与特定的问题配合。所以在阅读方案的描述代码时，会读到对问题进行表达的话语。与我们以前见过的相比，这无疑是一种更加灵活、更加强大的语言抽象方法。总之，OOP允许我们根据问题来描述问题，而不是根据方案。然而，仍有一个联系途径回到计算机。每个对象都类似一台小计算机；它们有自己的状态，而且可要求它们进行特定的操作。与现实世界的“对象”或者“物体”相比，编程“对象”与它们也存在共通的地方：它们都有自己的特征和行为。 Alan Kay总结了Smalltalk的五大基本特征。这是第一种成功的面向对象程序设计语言，也是Java的基础语言。通过这些特征，我们可理解“纯粹”的面向对象程序设计方法是什么样的。
(1)所有东西都是对象。可将对象想象成一种新型变量；它保存着数据，但可要求它对自身进行操作。理论上讲，可从要解决的问题身上提出所有概念性的组件，然后在程序中将其表达为一个对象。
(2) 程序是一大堆对象的组合；通过消息传递，各对象知道自己该做些什么。为了向对象发出请求，
需向那个对象“发送一条消息”。更具体地讲，可将消息想象为一个调用请求，它调用的是从属于目标对象的一个子例程或函数。
(3) 每个对象都有自己的存储空间，可容纳其他对象。或者说，通过封装现有对象，可制作出新型对象。所以，尽管对象的概念非常简单，但在程序中却可达到任意高的复杂程度。
(4) 每个对象都有一种类型。根据语法，每个对象都是某个“类”的一个“实例”。其中，“类”（Class）是“类型”（Type）的同义词。一个类最重要的特征就是“能将什么消息发给它？”。
(5) 同一类所有对象都能接收相同的消息。这实际是别有含义的一种说法，大家不久便能理解。由于类型为“圆”（Circle）的一个对象也属于类型为“形状”（Shape）的一个对象，所以一个圆完全能接收形状消息。这意味着可让程序代码统一指挥“形状”，令其自动控制所有符合“形状”描述的对象，其中自然包括“圆”。这一特性称为对象的“可替换性”，是OOP最重要的概念之一。
一些语言设计者认为面向对象的程序设计本身并不足以方便解决所有形式的程序问题，提倡将不同的方法组合成“多形程序设计语言”。
1.2 对象的接口
亚里士多德或许是认真研究“类型”概念的第一人，他曾谈及“鱼类和鸟类”的问题。在世界首例面向对象语言Simula-67中，第一次用到了这样的一个概念：
所有对象——尽管各有特色——都属于某一系列对象的一部分，这些对象具有通用的特征和行为。在Simula-67中，首次用到了class这个关键字，它为程序引入了一个全新的类型（clas和type通常可互换使用；注释③）。
③：有些人进行了进一步的区分，他们强调“类型”决定了接口，而“类”是那个接口的一种特殊实现方式。
Simula是一个很好的例子。正如这个名字所暗示的，它的作用是“模拟”（Simulate）象“银行出纳员”这样的经典问题。在这个例子里，我们有一系列出纳员、客户、帐号以及交易等。每类成员（元素）都具有一些通用的特征：每个帐号都有一定的余额；每名出纳都能接收客户的存款；等等。与此同时，每个成员都有自己的状态；每个帐号都有不同的余额；每名出纳都有一个名字。所以在计算机程序中，能用独一无二的实体分别表示出纳员、客户、帐号以及交易。这个实体便是“对象”，而且每个对象都隶属一个特定的“类”，那个类具有自己的通用特征与行为。
因此，在面向对象的程序设计中，尽管我们真正要做的是新建各种各样的数据“类型”（Type），但几乎所有面向对象的程序设计语言都采用了“class”关键字。当您看到“type”这个字的时候，请同时想到“class”；反之亦然。
建好一个类后，可根据情况生成许多对象。随后，可将那些对象作为要解决问题中存在的元素进行处理。事实上，当我们进行面向对象的程序设计时，面临的最大一项挑战性就是：如何在“问题空间”（问题实际存在的地方）的元素与“方案空间”（对实际问题进行建模的地方，如计算机）的元素之间建立理想的“一对一”对应或映射关系。
如何利用对象完成真正有用的工作呢？必须有一种办法能向对象发出请求，令其做一些实际的事情，比如完成一次交易、在屏幕上画一些东西或者打开一个开关等等。每个对象仅能接受特定的请求。我们向对象发出的请求是通过它的“接口”（Interface）定义的，对象的“类型”或“类”则规定了它的接口形式。“类型”与“接口”的等价或对应关系是面向对象程序设计的基础。
下面让我们以电灯泡为例：
Light lt = new Light();
在这个例子中，类型／类的名称是Light，可向Light对象发出的请求包括包括打开（on）、关闭（off）、变得更明亮（brighten）或者变得更暗淡（dim）。通过简单地声明一个名字（lt），我们为Light对象创建了一个“句柄”。然后用new关键字新建类型为Light的一个对象。再用等号将其赋给句柄。为了向对象发送一条消息，我们列出句柄名（lt），再用一个句点符号（.）把它同消息名称（on）连接起来。从中可以看出，使用一些预先定义好的类时，我们在程序里采用的代码是非常简单和直观的。
1.3 对象会提供服务
当你开发一个程序或者分析一个程序设计时，理解对象的最佳的方式是把他们当作“服务提供者”。程序本身会为用户提供服务，而它通过使用其它对象所提供的服务来完成这个工作。你的任务是制作（或者在更理想的情况下，从现有的代码库中找出）一组能为解决问题提供最佳服务的对象。
这么做的第一步是问“如果我可以像变魔术那样把东西从帽子里拿出来，我该拿出些什么东西，哪些对象能立即帮我解决问题？”举例来说，假设你要创建一个簿记程序。可能你会想应该有一些保存预设的输入界面的对象，一组进行簿记计算的对象，以及一个能在各种打印机上打印支票和发票的对象。
有些对象或许已经有了，但是那些还没有的应该是什么样的呢？它们应该提供哪种服务，还有它们要完成任务的话，又该用哪些对象呢？如果你不断分析下去，最终你会发现，不是“那个对象写起来很容易”就是“那个对象已经有了。”这是将问题分解成一组对象的一个合理的方法。
将对象视作为服务的提供者还有一个额外的优点：能提高对象的内聚星。内聚性高是高质量的软件设计一个基本要求：就是说软件的各种组将应该能很好的“组装在一起”
设计对象时常犯的一个错误就是，往对象里塞了太多的功能。举例来说，设计支票打印模块的时候，你也许会决定设计一个能通晓所有排格式和打印工作细节的对象。很快你就会发现这个任务太艰巨了，或许应该用三个或是更多对象来完成这个工作。第一个对象应该是支票格式的目录册，通过查询这个目录册可以获取得该如何打印支票的信息。第二个对象，或是一组对象，应该是能分辨各种打印机的通用的打印接口。以及使用上述两个对象所提供的服务的，能最终完成任务的第三个对象。由此每个对象都提供一组互补的功能。在一个良好的面向对象的设计中，每个对象都应该只做一件事，并且做好一件事，而不是去做太多的事情。就像这里看到的，这样不仅能发现那些对象因该买（打印机接口对象），而且能设计出今后能复用的对象（支票格式的目录册）。
将对象视作服务的提供者还是一种很了不起的简化工具。它不仅在设计过程中有用，而且还能帮助别人理解你的代码或者复用这个对象—如果它们认同这个对象所提供的服务的话。将对象视作服务的提供者能使对象更容易被用于设计.
原文来源：
Publisher : Prentice Hall PTR
Pub Date : December 6, 2002
Supplier : Bruce Eckel
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