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Screenwriting, also called scriptwriting, is the art and craft of writing
or . It is frequently a
profession.
are responsible for researching the story, developing the narrative, writing the script, screenplay, dialogues and delivering it, in the required format, to development executives. Screenwriters therefore have great influence over the creative direction and emotional impact of the screenplay and, arguably, of the finished film. Screenwriters either pitch original ideas to producers, in the hope that they will or are commissioned by a producer to create a screenplay from a concept, true story, existing screen work or literary work, such as a novel, poem, play, comic book or short story.
The act of screenwriting takes many forms across the entertainment industry. Often, multiple writers work on the same script at different stages of
with different tasks. Over the course of a successful career, a screenwriter might be hired to write in a wide variety of roles.
Some of the most common forms of screenwriting jobs include:
are feature film or
scripts written on speculation of sale, without the commission of a ,
or TV network. The content is usually invented solely by the screenwriter, though spec screenplays can also be based on established works or real people and events. The spec script is a Hollywood sales tool. The vast majority of scripts written each year are spec scripts, but only a small percentage make it to the screen. A spec script is usually a wholly original work, but can also be an .
In television writing, a spec script is a sample teleplay written to demonstrate the writer's knowledge of a show and ability to imitate its style and conventions. It is submitted to the show's producers in hopes of being hired to write future episodes of the show. Budding screenwriters attempting to break into the business generally begin by writing one or more spec scripts.
Although writing spec scripts is part of any writer's career, the
forbids members to write "on speculation". The distinction is that a "spec script" is written as a sample by the writ what is forbidden is writing a script for a specific producer without a contract. In addition to writing a script on speculation, it is generally not advised to write camera angles or other directional terminology, as these are likely to be ignored. A director may write up a shooting script himself or herself, a script that guides the team in what to do in order to carry out the director's vision of how the script should look. The director may ask the original writer to co-write it with him or her, or to rewrite a script that satisfies both the director and producer of the film/TV show.
Spec writing is also unique in that the writer must pitch the idea to producers. In order to sell the script, it must have a killer title, good writing, and a great logline. A logline is one sentence that lays out what the movie is about. A well written logline will convey the tone of the film, introduce the main character, and touch on the primary conflict. Usually the logline and title work in tandem to draw people in, and it is highly suggested to incorporate irony into them when possible. These things, along with nice, clean writing will hugely impact whether or not a producer picks up the spec script.
A commissioned screenplay is written by a hired writer. The concept is usually developed long before the screenwriter is brought on, and often has multiple writers work on it before the script is given a .
Scripts written on assignment are screenplays created under contract with a , production company, or producer. These are the most common assignments sought after in screenwriting. A screenwriter can get an assignment either exclusively or from "open" assignments. A screenwriter can also be approached and offered an assignment. Assignment scripts are generally adaptations of an existing idea or property owned by the hiring company, but can also be original works based on a concept created by the writer or producer.
Most produced films are rewritten to some extent during the development process. Frequently, they are not rewritten by the original writer of the script. Many established screenwriters, as well as new writers whose work shows promise but lacks marketability, make their living rewriting scripts.
When a script's central premise or characters are good but the script is otherwise unusable, a different writer or team of writers is contracted to do an entirely new draft, often referred to as a "page one rewrite". When only small problems remain, such as bad dialogue or poor humor, a writer is hired to do a "polish" or "punch-up".
Depending on the size of the new writer's contributions,
may or may not be given. For instance, in the American film industry, credit to rewriters is given only if 50% or more of the script is substantially changed. These standards can make it difficult to establish the identity and number of screenwriters who contributed to a film's creation.
When established writers are called in to rewrite portions of a script late in the development process, they are commonly referred to as . Prominent script doctors include Christopher Keane, , , , , Quentin Tarantino and Peter Russell. Many up-and-coming screenwriters work as ghost writers.[]
A freelance television writer typically uses spec scripts or previous credits and reputation to obtain a contract to write one or more episodes for an existing television show. After an episode is submitted, rewriting or polishing may be required.
A staff writer for a TV show generally works in-house, writing and rewriting episodes. Staff writers—often given other titles, such as
or —work both as a group and individually on episode scripts to maintain the show's tone, style, characters, and plots.
Television show creators write the
of new television series. They are responsible for creating and managing all aspects of a show's characters, style, and plots. Frequently, a creator remains responsible for the show's day-to-day creative decisions throughout the series run as ,
or story editor.
The process of writing for
is different from that used by
shows, due in part to the need to produce new episodes five days a week for several months. In one example cited by , screenwriting is a "sort of three-tiered system":
a few top writers craft the overall . Mid-level writers work with them to turn those arcs into things that look a lot like traditional episode outlines, and an array of writers below that (who do not even have to be local to Los Angeles), take those outlines and quickly generate the dialogue while adhering slavishly to the outlines.
Espenson notes that a recent trend has been to eliminate the role of the mid-level writer, relying on the senior writers to do rough outlines and giving the other writers a bit more freedom. Regardless, when the finished scripts are sent to the top writers, the latter do a final round of rewrites. Espenson also notes that a show that airs daily, with characters who have decades of history behind their voices, necessitates a writing staff without the distinctive voice that can sometimes be present in prime-time series.
Game shows feature live contestants, but still use a team of writers as part of a specific format. This may involve the slate of questions and even specific phrasing or dialogue on the part of the host. Writers may not script the dialogue used by the contestants, but they work with the producers to create the actions, scenarios, and sequence of events that support the game show's concept.
With the continued development and increased complexity of video games, many opportunities are available to employ screenwriters in the field of . Video game writers work closely with the other game designers to create characters, scenarios, and dialogue.
Fundamentally, the screenplay is a unique literary form. It is like a musical score, in that it is intended to be interpreted on the basis of other artists' performance, rather than serving as a finished product for the enjoyment of its audience. For this reason, a screenplay is written using technical jargon and tight, spare prose when describing stage directions. Unlike a
or , a screenplay focuses on describing the literal, visual aspects of the story, rather than on the internal thoughts of its characters. In screenwriting, the aim is to evoke those thoughts and emotions through subtext, action, and .
Several main screenwriting theories help writers approach the screenplay by systematizing the structure, goals and techniques of writing a script. The most common kinds of theories are structural. Screenwriter William Goldman is widely quoted as saying "Screenplays are structure".
The three acts are setup (of the location and characters), confrontation (with an obstacle), and resolution (culminating in a climax and a dénouement). Usually, in a two-hour film, the first and third acts both typically last around 30 minutes, with the middle act lasting roughly an hour, but today many films start from the confrontation point and then goes to the setup act or they might even start at the last act and then go back to the start.
In , French writer and director
shows a slightly different approach. As do most theorists, he maintains that every human action, whether fictitious or real, contains three logical parts: before the action, during the action, and after the action. But since the climax is part of the action, Yves Lavandier maintains that the second act must include the climax, which makes for a much shorter third act than is found in most screenwriting theories.
Besides the three-act structure, it is also common to use a four- or five-act structure in a screenplay, though certain screenplays may include as many as twenty separate acts.
The hero's journey, also referred to as the , is an idea formulated by noted mythologist . The central concept of the monomyth is that a pattern can be seen in stories and myths across history. Campbell defined and explained that pattern in his book
Campbell's insight was that important myths from around the world, which have survived for thousands of years, all share a fundamental structure. This fundamental structure contains a number of stages, which include
a call to adventure, which the hero has to accept or decline,
a road of trials, on which the hero succeeds or fails,
achieving the goal (or "boon"), which often results in important self-knowledge,
a return to the ordinary world, which again the hero can succeed or fail, and
application of the boon, in which what the hero has gained can be used to improve the world.
Later, screenwriter
refined and expanded the hero's journey for the screenplay form in his book,
In his book Screenplay
posited a new theory, which he called the Paradigm. Field noticed that in a 120-page screenplay, Act Two was notoriously boring, and was also twice the length of Acts One and Three. He also noticed that an important dramatic event usually occurred at the middle of the picture, which implied to him that the middle act was actually two acts in one. So the Three Act Structure is notated 1, 2a, 2b, 3, resulting in 's Three Acts divided into four pieces.
Field also introduced the idea of
into screenwriting theory. Plot Points are important structural functions that happen in approximately the same place in most successful movies, like the verses and choruses in a popular song. In subsequent books, Field has added to his original list, and students of his like Viki King and Linda Seger have added to the list of Plot Points. Here is a current list of the major Plot Points that are congruent with Field's Paradigm:
Opening Image: The first image in the screenplay should summarize the entire film, especially its tone. Often, writers go back and redo this as the last thing before submitting the script.
Exposition: Provides some background information to the audience about the plot, characters' histories, setting, and theme.
: Also called the catalyst, this is the point in the story when the Protagonist encounters the problem that will change their life. This is when the detective is assigned the case, where Boy meets Girl, and where the Comic Hero gets fired from his cushy job, forcing him into comic circumstances.
Plot Point 1: The last scene in Act One, Plot Point 1 is a surprising development that radically changes the Protagonist's life, and forces him to confront the Opponent. In , this is when 's family is killed by the . He has no home to go back to, so he joins the
in opposing .
Pinch 1: A reminder scene at about 3/8 the way through the script (halfway through Act 2a) that brings up the central conflict of the drama, reminding us of the overall conflict. For example, in Star Wars, Pinch 1 is the
attacking the
in , reminding us the Empire is after the stolen plans to the
is carrying and Luke and
are trying to get to the Rebel Alliance (the main conflict).
Midpoint: An important scene in the middle of the script, often a reversal of fortune or revelation that changes the direction of the story. Field suggests that driving the story towards the Midpoint keeps the second act from sagging.
Pinch 2: Another reminder scene about 5/8 through the script (halfway through Act 2b) that is somehow linked to Pinch 1 in reminding the audience about the central conflict. In Star Wars, Pinch 2 is the Stormtroopers attacking them as they rescue the
in the Death Star. Both scenes remind us of the Empire's opposition, and using the Stormtrooper attack
unifies both Pinches.
Plot Point 2: A dramatic reversal that ends Act 2 and begins Act 3, which is about confrontation and resolution. Sometimes Plot Point 2 is the moment when the Hero has had enough and is finally going to face the Opponent. Sometimes, like in , it's the low-point for the Hero, and he must bounce back to overcome the odds in Act 3.
Showdown: About midway through Act 3, the Protagonist will confront the Main Problem of the story and either overcome it, or come to a tragic end.
Resolution: The issues of the story are resolved.
Tag: An epilogue, tying up the loose ends of the story, giving the audience closure. This is also known as . In general, films in recent decades have had longer denouements than films made in the 1970s or earlier.
The sequence approach to screenwriting, sometimes known as "", is a system developed by , while he was the head of the Graduate Screenwriting Program at . It is based in part on the fact that, in the early days of cinema, technical matters forced screenwriters to divide their stories into sequences, each the length of a reel (about ten minutes).
The sequence approach mimics that early style. The story is broken up into eight 10-15 minute sequences. The sequences serve as "mini-movies", each with their own compressed three-act structure. The first two sequences combine to form the film's first act. The next four create the film's second act. The final two sequences complete the resolution and dénouement of the story. Each sequence's resolution creates the situation which sets up the next sequence.
Imagery can be used in many metaphoric ways. In , the title character talked of wanting to close the door on himself sometime, and then, in the end, he did.
rain to express a character feeling depressed, sunny days promote a feeling of happiness and calm. Imagery can be used to sway the emotions of the audience and to clue them in to what is happening.
Imagery is well defined in . The opening image sequence sets the tone for the entire film. The film opens with the shimmer of a knife's blade on a sharpening stone. A drink is being prepared, The knife's blade shows again, juxtaposed is a shot of a chicken letting loose of its harness on its feet. All symbolising 'The One that got away'. The film is about life in the favelas in Rio - sprinkled with violence and games and ambition.
Dialogue can be very important to the film industry, because there are no written words to explain th it all has to be explained through dialogue and imagery.[]
and other Indian film industries use separate dialogue writers in addition to the .[]
While the story is what will be told (narrative); the plot is how the story will be told (narration). This vocabulary is not indisputable for sometimes in literature stories and plots are used exactly the other way around.
A number of American universities offer specialized
and undergraduate programs in screenwriting, including , , , , , , ,
and the . In Europe, the United Kingdom has an extensive range of MA and BA Screenwriting Courses including , , , and .
Some schools offer non-degree screenwriting programs, such as the , The International Film and Television School Fast Track, and the UCLA Professional / .
offers both degree and non-degree educational systems with campuses all around the world.
Many screenwriters choose to pursue screenwriting independently with free online educational resources such as ScreenCraft, Keanewords, NoFilmSchool, Film Daily, ,
and Craig Mazin's
podcast, and Julie Gray's Just Effing Entertain Me.
The first true screenplay is thought to be from ' 1902 film . The movie is silent, but the screenplay still contains specific descriptions and action lines that resemble a modern-day script. As time went on and films became longer and more complex, the need for a screenplay became more prominent in the industry. The introduction of movie theaters also impacted the development of screenplays, as audiences became more widespread and sophisticated, so the stories had to be as well. Once the first non-silent movie was released in 1927, screenwriting became a hugely important position within Hollywood. The "studio system" of the 1930s only heightened this importance, as studio heads wanted productivity. Thus, having the "blueprint" (continuity screenplay) of the film beforehand became extremely optimal. Around 1970, the "spec script" was first created, and changed the industry for writers forever. Now, screenwriting for television (teleplays) is considered as difficult and competitive as writing is for feature films.
Screenwriting has been the focus of a number of films:
(1931)—A screenwriter collaborates on a gangster movie with a real-life gangster. When the film is released, the mob doesn’t like how accurate the movie is.
(1950)—Actor
portrays a hack screenwriter forced to collaborate on a screenplay with a desperate, fading
star, played by .
(1950)— is a washed up screenwriter who gets framed for murder.
(1964)— plays a drunk screenwriter who has wasted months partying and has just two days to finish his script. He hires
(1991)— plays a na?ve New York playwright who comes to Hollywood with high hopes and great ambition. While there, he meets one of his writing idols, a celebrated novelist from the past who has become a drunken hack screenwriter (a character based on ).
(1992)—In this comedy written by
is a screenwriter/director who's got integrity, vision, and a serious script - but no career.
is a sleazy producer who introduces Wuhl to ,
- three guys willing to invest in the movie, but with one catch: each one wants his mistress to be the star.
(1992)—In this satire of the Hollywood system,
plays a movie producer who thinks he’s being blackmailed by a screenwriter whose script was rejected.
(2002)— portrays real-life screenwriter
(as well as his fictional brother, Donald) as Kaufman struggles to adapt an esoteric book (’s real-life nonfiction work
) into an action-filled Hollywood screenplay.
(2007)—The only documentary to follow aspiring screenwriters as they struggle to turn their scripts into movies, the film also features wisdom from established scribes like , , , and .
(2012)—In this satire, written and directed by ,
plays a screenwriter who is struggling to finish his screenplay Seven Psychopaths, but finds unlikely inspiration after his best friend steals a Shih Tzu owned by a vicious gangster.
In the , completed works may be , but ideas and plots may not be. Any document written after 1978 in the U.S. is automatically copyrighted even without legal
or notice. However, the
will formally register a screenplay. U.S. Courts will not accept a lawsuit alleging that a defendant is infringing on the plaintiff's copyright in a work until the plaintiff registers the plaintiff's claim to those copyrights with the Copyright Office. This means that a plaintiff's attempts to remedy an infringement will be delayed during the registration process. Additionally, in many infringement cases, the plaintiff will not be able recoup
or collect , unless the plaintiff registered before the infringement began. For the purpose of establishing evidence that a screenwriter is the author of a particular screenplay (but not related to the legal copyrighting status of a work), the Writers Guild of America registers screenplays. However, since this service is one of record keeping and is not regulated by law, a variety of commercial and non-profit organizations exist for registering screenplays. Protection for teleplays, formats, as well as screenplays may be registered for instant proof-of-authorship by third-party assurance vendors, such as the .
There is a line of
in several states (including California and New York) that allows for "idea submission" claims, based on the notion that submission of a screenplay (or even a mere pitch for one) to a studio under very particular sets of factual circumstances could potentially give rise to an implied contract to pay for the ideas embedded in that screenplay, even if an alleged derivative work does not actually infringe the screenplay author's copyright. The unfortunate
of such precedents (which were supposed to protect screenwriters) is that it is now that much harder to break into screenwriting. Naturally, motion picture and television production firms responded by categorically declining to read all unsolicited screenplays
accepting screenplays only through official channels like talent agents, managers, and forcing screenwriters to sign broad
before their screenplays will be actually accepted, read, or considered. In turn, agents, managers, and attorneys have become extremely powerful gatekeepers on behalf of the major film studios and media networks. One symptom of how hard it is to break into screenwriting as a result of such case law is that in 2008,
resisted construction of a bike path along the
next to its studio lot because it would worsen their existing problem with desperate amateur screenwriters throwing copies of their work over the studio wall.
Specific references
from seattlepi.nwsource.com
Lydia Willen and Joan Willen, How to Sell your Screenplay, pg 242. Square One Publishers, 2001.
Skip Press, The Ultimate Writer's Guide to Hollywood, pg xiii. Barnes and Noble Books, 2004.
[] from wga.org
Virginia Wright Wetman. "Success Has 1,000 Fathers (So Do Films)". . May 28, 1995. Arts section, p.16.
at the . from tvwriter.com
, from "Jane in Progress" a blog for aspiring screenwriters by Jane Espenson
Skip Press, The Ultimate Writer's Guide to Hollywood, pg207. Barnes and Noble Books, 2004.
Trottier, David: "The Screenwriter's Bible", pg4. Silman James, 1998.
from Yves Lavandier's Writing Drama
Gulino, Paul Joseph: "Screenwriting: The Sequence Approach", pg3. Continuum, 2003.
Gray, Julie (2013). Just Effing Entertain Me. Julie Gray.  . A comprehensive guide to screenwriting with proven methods to help you test your ideas BEFORE you write your script, outlining tricks that make every page fascinating, chapters on character development, dialogue, theme
. Huffington Post. A Hollywood refugee living in the Middle East, Julie Gray has authored two books and is working on a memoir. A former Hollywood story analyst who has taught at Warner Bros., Julie now works with entrepreneurs, writers and innovators world wide-to shape narrative, edit stories and bridge the gap between art and commerce.
Brown, Hannah (September 4, 2014). . The Jerusalem Post.
. The Art of Screenwriting.
. chasingthefrog.com. Archived from
Jay A. Fernandez (July 18, 2007). . Los Angeles Times.
Donald E. B Edward P. P Martin E. S Janna G Charles J. B Kenneth J. A Scott D. Sanders (November 2006). Law and Business of the Entertainment Industries (5th ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 313–327.  .
Rosman, Kathleen (22 January 2010). . Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company 2015.
Hymon, S Andrew Blankstein (27 February 2008). . Los Angeles Times. Tribune Company 2015.
General references
Judith H. Haag, Hillis R. Cole (1980). The Complete Guide to Standard Script Formats: The Screenplay. CMC Publishing.  . - Paperback
David Trottier (1998). The Screenwriter's Bible: A Complete Guide to Writing, Formatting, and Selling Your Script. Silman-James Press.  . - Paperback
(2005). , A Comprehensive Guide for Playwrights and Scritpwriters. Le Clown & l'Enfant.  . - Paperback
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